A Multilevel Analysis of Registered Sex Offender Violation Status: The Role of Neighborhood Disadvantage and Social Services
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2015.04.01Keywords:
Registered sex offenders, neighborhoods, spatial analysisAbstract
This research attempted to clarify the determinants of registered sex offender violations using individual-level and contextual characteristics under social disorganization theory. Data on registered sex offenders in Fresno County, CA and census data were analyzed to examine the influences of offender characteristics, neighborhood disadvantage, and accessibility to social services on violation risks. Multilevel logistic regression models indicated that those offenders living in disadvantaged neighborhoods faced a higher risk of registration violations, while such an effect was mitigated by the accessibility to social services. Based on the findings, policy implications of social services as a protective factor and strategic management of the registration policies were discussed.
References
Anselin, Luc, Jacqueline Cohen, David Cook, Wilpen Gorr, and George Tita. 2000. “Spatial Analyses of Crime.” Measurement and Analysis of Crime and Justice Criminal Justice 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved December 13, 2013 (https://www.ncjrs.gov/ criminal_justice2000/vol_4/04e.pdf).
Baller, Robert D., Luc Anselin, Steven F. Messner, Glenn Deane, and Darnell F. Hawkins. 2001. “Structural Covariates of U.S. County Homicide Rates: Incorporating Spatial Effects.” Criminology 39(3):561-588.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2001.tb00933.x
Bartol, Curt R. and Anne M. Bartol. 2008. Criminal Behavior: A Psychosocial Approach. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
Bursik, Robert J. Jr., and Harold G. Grasmick. 1993. Neighborhoods and Crime. New York, NY: Lexington Books.
Carroll, Joseph. 2005. “Crystal Meth, Child Molestation Top Crime Concerns.” Retrieved November 11, 2012 (http://www.gallup.com/poll/16123/crystal-meth-child-molestation.aspx).
Cole, Simon A. 2000. From the Sexual Psychopath Statute to ‘Megan's Law’: Psychiatric Knowledge in the Diagnosis, Treatment, and Adjudication of Sex Criminals in New Jersey, 1949-1999. New York: Oxford University Press.
Department of Social Service (n.d.). “Directory of Some Community Resources: Community Resource Network.” Fresno County, CA. Retrieved December 5, 2012 (http://www.co.fresno.ca. us/uploadedFiles/Departments/Children_and_Family_Services/Directory%20of%20Some%20Community%20services%20v3.pdf).
Duwe, Grant, William Donnay, and Richard Tewksbury. 2008. “Does Residential Proximity Matter? A Geographic Analysis of Sex Offender Recidivism.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 35:484-504.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093854807313690
Franklin Police Department. 2009. “Standard Sex Offender Rules.” Retrieved October 10, 2013 (http://www.franklinwi.gov/Home/ Departments/Police/SexOffenders/StandardSexOffenderRules.htm).
Grubesic, Tony H. 2010. “Sex Offender Clusters.” Applied Geography 30: 2-18.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2009.06.002
Hanson, Karl, Kelly E. Morton, and Andrew J. R. Harris. 2003. “Sexual Offender Recidivism Risk: What we know and what we Need to know.” Annals New York Academy of Sciences 989:154-166.
Hanson, Karl and Kelly E. Morton-Bourgon. 2005. “The Characteristics of Persistent Sexual Offenders: A Meta-analysis of Recidivism Studies.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 73(6):1154-1163.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.73.6.1154
Hipp, John R., Susan Turner, and Jesse Jannetta. 2010. “Are Sex Offenders Moving into Social Disorganization? Analyzing Mobility of California Parolees.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 47(4):558-590.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022427810381093
Justice Policy Institute. 2008. “What will it Cost States to Comply with the Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act?” Retrieved December 13, 2012 (www.justicepolicy.org/ images/upload/08--8-fac_sornacosts_jj.pdf).
Kernsmith, Poco D., Sarah W. Craun, and Jonathan Foster. 2009. “Public Attitudes Toward Sexual Offenders and Sex Offender Registration.” Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 18:290-301.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10538710902901663
Kornhauser, Ruth R. 1984. Social Sources of Delinquency: An Appraisal of Analytic Models. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Krohn, Martin, D., Alan J. Lizotte, and Gina Penly Hall. 2009. Handbook on Crime and Deviance. New York, NY: Springer.
Kubrin, Charis. E. and Jerald R. Herting. 2003. “Neighborhood Correlates of Homicide Trends: an Analysis Using Growth-curve Modeling.” Sociological Quarterly 44:329-350.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.2003.tb00536.x
Kubrin, Charis E. and Eric A. Stewart. 2006. “Predicting who Reoffends: The Neglected Role of Neighborhood Context in Recidivism Studies.” Criminology 44(1):165-197.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00046.x
Kubrin, Charis E., Thomas D. Stucky, and Marvin D. Krohn. 2009. Researching Theories of Crime and Deviance. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Letourneau, Elizabeth J., Dipankar Bandyopadhyay, Kevin S. Armstrong, and Debajyoti Sinha. 2010. “Do Sex Offender Registration and Notification Requirements Deter Juvenile Sex Crimes?” Criminal Justice and Behavior 37:553-569.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093854810363562
Levenson, Jill S., Yolanda N. Brannon, Timothy Fortney, and Juanita Barker. 2007. “Public Perceptions about Sex Offenders and Community Protection Policies.” Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 7(1):1-25.
Levenson, Jill S., Elizabeth Letourneau, Kevin Armstrong, and Kristen M. Zgoba. 2010. “Failure to Register as a Sex Offender: Is it Associated with Recidivism?” Justice Quarterly 27(3):305-325.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07418820902972399
McGovern, Virginia, Stephen Demuth, and Joseph E. Jacoby. 2009. “Racial and Ethnic Recidivism Risks: A Comparison of Post-incarceration Rearrest, Reconviction, and Reincarceration among White, Black, and Hispanic Releasees.” The Prison Journal 89(3):309-327.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0032885509339507
McGrath, Robert. J., Georgia Cumming, Joy A. Livingston, and Stephen E. Hoke. 2003. “Outcome of a Treatment Program for Adult Sex Offenders: From Prison to Community.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 18(1):3-17.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0886260502238537
Mears, Daniel P., Xia Wang, Carter Hay, and William D. Bales. 2008. “Social Ecology and Recidivism: Implications for Prisoner Reentry.” Criminology 46(2):301-340.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2008.00111.x
National Center for Missing & Exploited Children. 2012. ""Number of Registered Sex Offenders in the US Nears Three-quarters of a Million."" Retrieved March 3, 2013 (www.missingkids.com/ missingkids/servlet/newseventservlet?languagecountry=en_us&pageid=4615).
National Center for Missing & Exploited Children, Special Analysis Unit. 2012. ""Registered Sex Offenders in the United States and its Territories per 100,000 Population."" Retrieved March 3, 2013 (http://www.missingkids.com/en_US/documents/ Sex_Offenders_Map.pdf).
National Conference of State Legislatures 2013. ""Adam Walsh Protection and Safety Act."" Retrieved November 26, 2012 (www.ncsl.org/issues-research/justice/adam-walsh-child-protection-and-safety-act.aspx).
Raudenbush, Stephen W. and Anthony S. Bryk. 2001. Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods. Thousand Oak, CA: Sage Publications.
Ritter, Nancy. 2013. ""Predicting Recidivism Risk: New Tool in Philadelphia Shows Great Promise."" National Institute of Justice Journal 271:4-13.
Pratt, Travis C. and Francis T. Cullen. 2005. “Assessing Macro-level Predictors and Theories of Crime: A Meta-analysis.” Crime and Justice 32:373-450.
Saad, Lydia. 2005. ""Sex Offender Registries are Underutilized by the Public."" Retrieved November 11, 2012 (http://www.gallup. com/poll/16705/sex-offender-registries).
Sampson, Robert J. and Byron W. Groves. 1989. ""Community Structure and Crime: Testing Social-Disorganization Theory."" The American Journal of Sociology 94(4):774-802.
Sampson, Robert J., Jeffrey D. Morenoff, and Thomas Gannon-Rowley. 2002. “Assessing ""Neighborhood Effects"": Social Processes and New Directions in Research.” Annual Review of Sociology 28:443-478.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.28.110601.141114
Sampson, Robert J., Stephen W. Raudenbush, and Felton Earls. 1997. ""Neighborhoods and Violent Crime: A Multilevel Study of Collective Efficacy.” Science 277:918-924.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5328.918
Schiavone, Stacy K. and Elizabeth L. Jeglic. 2009. “Public Perceptions of Sex Offenders, Social Policies and the Impact on Sex Offenders.” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 53:679-695.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0306624X08323454
Shaw, Clifford R. and Henry D. McKay. 1942. Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Socia, Kelly M. and Janet P. Stamatel. 2011. “Neighborhood Characteristics and the Social Control of Registered Sex Offenders.” Crime & Delinquency 58(4):565-587.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011128711420111
Stark, Rodney. 1987. “Deviant Places: A Theory of the Ecology of Crime.” Criminology 25(4):893-909.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1987.tb00824.x
State of California. 2009. ""Adam Walsh Act: Statement of Position."" Sacramento, CA: Sex Offender Management Board. Retrieved December 12, 2012 (www.casomb.org/docs/ adam%20position%20paper.pdf).
State of California Department of Justice. 2009. ""Sex Offender Registration and Exclusion Information."" Retrieved October 20, 2012 (www.megans.ca.gov/sexreg.aspx).
Tewksbury, Richard, Elizabeth Ehrhardt Mustain, and Michele Covington. 2010. “Offender Presence, Available Victims, Social Disorganization and Sex Offense Rates.” American Journal of Criminal Justice 35:1-14.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12103-010-9070-6
Tewksbury, Richard and Elizabeth Ehrhardt Mustain. 2006. “Where to Find Sex Offenders: An Examination of Residential Locations and Neighborhood Conditions.” Criminal Justice Studies: A Critical Journal of Crime, Law and Society 19(1):61-75.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786010600615991
Turner, Elizabeth and Stephen Rubin. 2002. “Once a Sex Offender... Always a Sex Offender: Myth or Fact.” Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology 17(2):32-44.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02807113
U.S. Census Bureau. 2010. Fresno County, California, ACS Demographic and Housing Estimates. 2010 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates. Retrieved December 15, 2012 (http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/ jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?src=bkmk).
U.S. Census Bureau. 2010. Fresno County, California, ACS Selected Economic Characteristics. 2010 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates. Retrieved December 20, 2012 (http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/ jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?src=bkmk).
U.S. Census Bureau. 2010. Data: Fresno County, California. Retrieved December 20, 2012 (http://www.census.gov/acs/).
Velasquez, Tracy. 2008. The Pursuit of Safety: Sex Offender Policy in the United States. New York: Vera Institute of Justice.
Zandbergen, Paul A., Jill S. Levenson and Timothy C. Hart. 2010. “Residential Proximity to Schools and Daycares: An Empirical Analysis of Sex Offense Recidivism.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 37(5):482-502.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093854810363549
Zgoba, Kristin M. and Karen Bachar. 2009. “Sex Offender Registration and Notification: Limited Effects in New Jersey.” In Short Toward Criminal Justice Solutions. Office of Justice Programs. Retrieved December 13, 2012 (https://www.ncjrs. gov/pdffiles1/nij/225402.pdf).
Zgoba, Kristin, Bonita M. Veysey, and Melissa Dalessandro. 2010. “An Analysis of the Effectiveness of Community Notification and Registration: Do the Best Intentions Predict the Best Practices?” Justice Quarterly 27(5):667-69.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07418820903357673
Baller, Robert D., Luc Anselin, Steven F. Messner, Glenn Deane, and Darnell F. Hawkins. 2001. “Structural Covariates of U.S. County Homicide Rates: Incorporating Spatial Effects.” Criminology 39(3):561-588.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2001.tb00933.x
Bartol, Curt R. and Anne M. Bartol. 2008. Criminal Behavior: A Psychosocial Approach. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
Bursik, Robert J. Jr., and Harold G. Grasmick. 1993. Neighborhoods and Crime. New York, NY: Lexington Books.
Carroll, Joseph. 2005. “Crystal Meth, Child Molestation Top Crime Concerns.” Retrieved November 11, 2012 (http://www.gallup.com/poll/16123/crystal-meth-child-molestation.aspx).
Cole, Simon A. 2000. From the Sexual Psychopath Statute to ‘Megan's Law’: Psychiatric Knowledge in the Diagnosis, Treatment, and Adjudication of Sex Criminals in New Jersey, 1949-1999. New York: Oxford University Press.
Department of Social Service (n.d.). “Directory of Some Community Resources: Community Resource Network.” Fresno County, CA. Retrieved December 5, 2012 (http://www.co.fresno.ca. us/uploadedFiles/Departments/Children_and_Family_Services/Directory%20of%20Some%20Community%20services%20v3.pdf).
Duwe, Grant, William Donnay, and Richard Tewksbury. 2008. “Does Residential Proximity Matter? A Geographic Analysis of Sex Offender Recidivism.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 35:484-504.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093854807313690
Franklin Police Department. 2009. “Standard Sex Offender Rules.” Retrieved October 10, 2013 (http://www.franklinwi.gov/Home/ Departments/Police/SexOffenders/StandardSexOffenderRules.htm).
Grubesic, Tony H. 2010. “Sex Offender Clusters.” Applied Geography 30: 2-18.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2009.06.002
Hanson, Karl, Kelly E. Morton, and Andrew J. R. Harris. 2003. “Sexual Offender Recidivism Risk: What we know and what we Need to know.” Annals New York Academy of Sciences 989:154-166.
Hanson, Karl and Kelly E. Morton-Bourgon. 2005. “The Characteristics of Persistent Sexual Offenders: A Meta-analysis of Recidivism Studies.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 73(6):1154-1163.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.73.6.1154
Hipp, John R., Susan Turner, and Jesse Jannetta. 2010. “Are Sex Offenders Moving into Social Disorganization? Analyzing Mobility of California Parolees.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 47(4):558-590.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022427810381093
Justice Policy Institute. 2008. “What will it Cost States to Comply with the Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act?” Retrieved December 13, 2012 (www.justicepolicy.org/ images/upload/08--8-fac_sornacosts_jj.pdf).
Kernsmith, Poco D., Sarah W. Craun, and Jonathan Foster. 2009. “Public Attitudes Toward Sexual Offenders and Sex Offender Registration.” Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 18:290-301.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10538710902901663
Kornhauser, Ruth R. 1984. Social Sources of Delinquency: An Appraisal of Analytic Models. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Krohn, Martin, D., Alan J. Lizotte, and Gina Penly Hall. 2009. Handbook on Crime and Deviance. New York, NY: Springer.
Kubrin, Charis. E. and Jerald R. Herting. 2003. “Neighborhood Correlates of Homicide Trends: an Analysis Using Growth-curve Modeling.” Sociological Quarterly 44:329-350.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.2003.tb00536.x
Kubrin, Charis E. and Eric A. Stewart. 2006. “Predicting who Reoffends: The Neglected Role of Neighborhood Context in Recidivism Studies.” Criminology 44(1):165-197.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00046.x
Kubrin, Charis E., Thomas D. Stucky, and Marvin D. Krohn. 2009. Researching Theories of Crime and Deviance. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Letourneau, Elizabeth J., Dipankar Bandyopadhyay, Kevin S. Armstrong, and Debajyoti Sinha. 2010. “Do Sex Offender Registration and Notification Requirements Deter Juvenile Sex Crimes?” Criminal Justice and Behavior 37:553-569.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093854810363562
Levenson, Jill S., Yolanda N. Brannon, Timothy Fortney, and Juanita Barker. 2007. “Public Perceptions about Sex Offenders and Community Protection Policies.” Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 7(1):1-25.
Levenson, Jill S., Elizabeth Letourneau, Kevin Armstrong, and Kristen M. Zgoba. 2010. “Failure to Register as a Sex Offender: Is it Associated with Recidivism?” Justice Quarterly 27(3):305-325.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07418820902972399
McGovern, Virginia, Stephen Demuth, and Joseph E. Jacoby. 2009. “Racial and Ethnic Recidivism Risks: A Comparison of Post-incarceration Rearrest, Reconviction, and Reincarceration among White, Black, and Hispanic Releasees.” The Prison Journal 89(3):309-327.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0032885509339507
McGrath, Robert. J., Georgia Cumming, Joy A. Livingston, and Stephen E. Hoke. 2003. “Outcome of a Treatment Program for Adult Sex Offenders: From Prison to Community.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 18(1):3-17.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0886260502238537
Mears, Daniel P., Xia Wang, Carter Hay, and William D. Bales. 2008. “Social Ecology and Recidivism: Implications for Prisoner Reentry.” Criminology 46(2):301-340.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2008.00111.x
National Center for Missing & Exploited Children. 2012. ""Number of Registered Sex Offenders in the US Nears Three-quarters of a Million."" Retrieved March 3, 2013 (www.missingkids.com/ missingkids/servlet/newseventservlet?languagecountry=en_us&pageid=4615).
National Center for Missing & Exploited Children, Special Analysis Unit. 2012. ""Registered Sex Offenders in the United States and its Territories per 100,000 Population."" Retrieved March 3, 2013 (http://www.missingkids.com/en_US/documents/ Sex_Offenders_Map.pdf).
National Conference of State Legislatures 2013. ""Adam Walsh Protection and Safety Act."" Retrieved November 26, 2012 (www.ncsl.org/issues-research/justice/adam-walsh-child-protection-and-safety-act.aspx).
Raudenbush, Stephen W. and Anthony S. Bryk. 2001. Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods. Thousand Oak, CA: Sage Publications.
Ritter, Nancy. 2013. ""Predicting Recidivism Risk: New Tool in Philadelphia Shows Great Promise."" National Institute of Justice Journal 271:4-13.
Pratt, Travis C. and Francis T. Cullen. 2005. “Assessing Macro-level Predictors and Theories of Crime: A Meta-analysis.” Crime and Justice 32:373-450.
Saad, Lydia. 2005. ""Sex Offender Registries are Underutilized by the Public."" Retrieved November 11, 2012 (http://www.gallup. com/poll/16705/sex-offender-registries).
Sampson, Robert J. and Byron W. Groves. 1989. ""Community Structure and Crime: Testing Social-Disorganization Theory."" The American Journal of Sociology 94(4):774-802.
Sampson, Robert J., Jeffrey D. Morenoff, and Thomas Gannon-Rowley. 2002. “Assessing ""Neighborhood Effects"": Social Processes and New Directions in Research.” Annual Review of Sociology 28:443-478.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.28.110601.141114
Sampson, Robert J., Stephen W. Raudenbush, and Felton Earls. 1997. ""Neighborhoods and Violent Crime: A Multilevel Study of Collective Efficacy.” Science 277:918-924.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5328.918
Schiavone, Stacy K. and Elizabeth L. Jeglic. 2009. “Public Perceptions of Sex Offenders, Social Policies and the Impact on Sex Offenders.” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 53:679-695.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0306624X08323454
Shaw, Clifford R. and Henry D. McKay. 1942. Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Socia, Kelly M. and Janet P. Stamatel. 2011. “Neighborhood Characteristics and the Social Control of Registered Sex Offenders.” Crime & Delinquency 58(4):565-587.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011128711420111
Stark, Rodney. 1987. “Deviant Places: A Theory of the Ecology of Crime.” Criminology 25(4):893-909.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1987.tb00824.x
State of California. 2009. ""Adam Walsh Act: Statement of Position."" Sacramento, CA: Sex Offender Management Board. Retrieved December 12, 2012 (www.casomb.org/docs/ adam%20position%20paper.pdf).
State of California Department of Justice. 2009. ""Sex Offender Registration and Exclusion Information."" Retrieved October 20, 2012 (www.megans.ca.gov/sexreg.aspx).
Tewksbury, Richard, Elizabeth Ehrhardt Mustain, and Michele Covington. 2010. “Offender Presence, Available Victims, Social Disorganization and Sex Offense Rates.” American Journal of Criminal Justice 35:1-14.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12103-010-9070-6
Tewksbury, Richard and Elizabeth Ehrhardt Mustain. 2006. “Where to Find Sex Offenders: An Examination of Residential Locations and Neighborhood Conditions.” Criminal Justice Studies: A Critical Journal of Crime, Law and Society 19(1):61-75.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786010600615991
Turner, Elizabeth and Stephen Rubin. 2002. “Once a Sex Offender... Always a Sex Offender: Myth or Fact.” Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology 17(2):32-44.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02807113
U.S. Census Bureau. 2010. Fresno County, California, ACS Demographic and Housing Estimates. 2010 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates. Retrieved December 15, 2012 (http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/ jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?src=bkmk).
U.S. Census Bureau. 2010. Fresno County, California, ACS Selected Economic Characteristics. 2010 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates. Retrieved December 20, 2012 (http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/ jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?src=bkmk).
U.S. Census Bureau. 2010. Data: Fresno County, California. Retrieved December 20, 2012 (http://www.census.gov/acs/).
Velasquez, Tracy. 2008. The Pursuit of Safety: Sex Offender Policy in the United States. New York: Vera Institute of Justice.
Zandbergen, Paul A., Jill S. Levenson and Timothy C. Hart. 2010. “Residential Proximity to Schools and Daycares: An Empirical Analysis of Sex Offense Recidivism.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 37(5):482-502.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093854810363549
Zgoba, Kristin M. and Karen Bachar. 2009. “Sex Offender Registration and Notification: Limited Effects in New Jersey.” In Short Toward Criminal Justice Solutions. Office of Justice Programs. Retrieved December 13, 2012 (https://www.ncjrs. gov/pdffiles1/nij/225402.pdf).
Zgoba, Kristin, Bonita M. Veysey, and Melissa Dalessandro. 2010. “An Analysis of the Effectiveness of Community Notification and Registration: Do the Best Intentions Predict the Best Practices?” Justice Quarterly 27(5):667-69.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07418820903357673
Downloads
Published
2015-01-07
How to Cite
Snow, D. M., Kikuchi, G., & Kissner, J. (2015). A Multilevel Analysis of Registered Sex Offender Violation Status: The Role of Neighborhood Disadvantage and Social Services. International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 4, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2015.04.01
Issue
Section
Articles
License
Policy for Journals/Articles with Open Access
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post links to their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work
Policy for Journals / Manuscript with Paid Access
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Publisher retain copyright .
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post links to their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work .
