Empowering the Frontline Police Officers to Cope with Police Social Service Role Strain in China
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2014.03.03Keywords:
Social service, role strain, empowerment, police, ChinaAbstract
Provision of social service is one of the most significant roles of the police. A review of the related literature in policing seems to reveal that empowerment holds significance for frontline officers who are largely responsible for social service delivery. This study examines the possible relationships between police social service structural empowerment (PSSSE), police social service psychological empowerment (PSSPE) and police social service role strain (PSSRS) among frontline police officers in China. This study adopts a two-phase (quantitative and qualitative approaches) sequential explanatory design. In the first phase, a questionnaire is used to collect data from a sample of two hundred frontline community patrol officers in Shenzhen Public Security Bureau, China. After conducting the quantitative analysis, the author uses in-depth interviews to explore the nature of PSSRS, PSSSE, PSSPE from twelve selected interviewees' insights. According to the results of the survey and in-depth interviews, the participants report a comparatively high level of PSSRS and low levels of PSSSE and PSSPE. It has been found that there are significantly negative correlations between PSSSE, PSSPE and PSSRS in the Chinese police organization. The Chinese police force is suggested to provide effective interventions for individual experience of psychological empowerment and reorganize the current paramilitary-bureaucratic model by changing the management practices for structural empowerment in response to the PSSRS among frontline police officers.References
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Baguley, K. 1999. “Workplace Empowerment, Job Strain and Affective Organizational Commitment in Critical Care Nurses: Testing Kanter’s Structural Theory of Organizational Behavior.” Master’s Thesis, University of Western Ontario, London.
Becker, P.E. and Moen, P. 1999. “Scaling Back: Dual-earner Couples’ Work-Family Strategies.” Journal of Marriage and the Family 61: 995-1007.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/354019
Biddle, B. J. 1979. Role theory: Expectations, Identities, and Behaviors. New York: Academic Press.
Brown, J. M. and Campbell, E.A. 1990. “Sources of Occupational Stress in the Police.” Work and Stress 4: 305-318.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02678379008256993
Brown, J. M., and Kanter, R. 1982. “Empowerment: Key to effectiveness.” Hospital. Forum 25(3): 6-10.
Conger, J. and Kanungo, R. 1988. “The Empowerment Process: Integrating Theory and Practice.” Academy of Management Review 13(3): 471-482.
Cox, S. M. 1996. Police: Practices, Perspectives, Problems. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Cullen, F., Link, B., Wolfe, N., and Frank, J. 1985. “The Social Dimensions of Correctional Officer Stress.” Justice Quarterly 2: 505–532.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07418828500088711
Dai, M. Y. 2008. “Policing in the People’s Republic of China: A Review of Recent Literature.” Crime Law Social Change 50: 211–227.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10611-008-9131-7
Dempsey, J. S.1999. An Introduction to Policing. Belmont, CA: West/Wadsworth Publishing.
DiTecco, D., Cwitco, G., Arsenault. A, and Andre, M. 1992. “Operator Stress and Monitoring practices.” Applied Ergonomics 23: 29–34.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0003-6870(92)90007-I
Ford, J.K. 2002. “Organizational Change and Development: Fundamental Principles, Core Dilemmas, and Leadership Challenges in the Move toward A Community Policing Strategy.” Pp.126-149 in The Move to Community Policing: Making Change Happen. Edited by M. Morash and J. K. Ford. Sage Publications.
Fu, H. 1990. “Patrol Police: A Recent Development in the People's Republic of China.”Police Studies 13(3): 111–117.
Goldstein, H. 1990. Problem-Oriented Policing. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Goode, W.J.1960. “A Theory of Role Strain.” American Sociological Review 25:483-496.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2092933
Greene, J. R.and Klocars, C.B.1991. “What Police Do.” Pp273-284 in Thinking about Police: Contemporary Readings. Edited by C. Klockars and S. Mastrofski. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hardy, M. E., and Conway, M. E. 1988. Role theory: Perspectives for Health Professionals. Norwalk, Conn.: Appleton and Lange.
Hickman, M. and Reaves, B. 2001. Local Police Departments,1999. Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Jiang, J., Xu, Y. and Deng, Z. 2005. “The Relationship between Job Strain and Job Stress.” Chinese Mental Health Journal 3: 207.
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Komarovsky, M. 1976. Dilemmas of Masculinity: A Study of College Youth. New York: Norton.
Langworthy, H. R. and Lawerence, Travis III, F. 1994. Policing in America: A Balance of Forces. New York : Macmillan.
Laschinger, H. K. 1996. “A Theoretical Approach to Studying Work Empowerment in Nursing: A Review of Studies Testing Kanter’s Theory of Structural Power in Organizations.” Nursing Administration Quarterly 20: 25-41.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006216-199602020-00006
Laschinger, H. K., Finegan, J. and Shamian, J. 2001. “The Impact of Workplace Empowerment and Organizational Trust on Staff Nurses' Work Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment.” Health Care Management Review 23: 7-23.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004010-200107000-00002
Laschinger H.K., Finegan J., Shamian J. and Wilk P. 2001. “Impact of Structural and Psychological Empowerment on Job Strain in Nursing Work Settings: Expanding Kanter’s Model.”Journal of Nursing Administration31 (5):260–272.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005110-200105000-00006
Laschinger, H. K. S. and Havens, D. S.1996. “Staff Nurse Work Empowerment and Perceived Control over Nursing Practice: Conditions for Work Effectiveness.” JONA 26(9):27-35.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005110-199609000-00007
Magenau, J. and Hunt, R. 1996. “Police Unions and the Police Role.” Human Relations 49(10):1315-1343.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/001872679604901003
Marks, S. R. 1977. “Multiple Roles and Role Strain: Some Notes on Human Energy, Time and Commitment.” American Sociological Review 42(l): 921-936.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2094577
Meese, E. 1993. “Community Policing and the Police Officer.” Perspectives on Policing15:1-11.
Oliver, W. M. 2004. Community-Oriented Policing: A Systemic Approach to Policing. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Paden, S. and Buehler, C. 1995. “Coping with the Dual-Income Lifestyle.” Journal of Marriage and Family 57(1): 101–110.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/353819
Palmiotto, M. 1999. Community Policing : A Policing Strategy for the 21st Century. Gaithersburg, Md.: Aspen.
Pareek, U. 1983. “Organizational Role Stress.” Pp.115-118 in The 1983 Annual for Facilitators, Trainers, and Consultants, edited by Goodstein, L. D. and Pfeiffer, J.W.. San Diego. University Associates.
Patton, M. Q. 1990. Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Paul, P. 2001. “Reading about ‘Community (Oriented) Policing’ and Police Models.” Policing 24(4): 470-496.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000006496
Peak, K. J., Gaines, L. K. and Glensor, R. W. 2010. Police Supervision and Management: In An Era of Community Policing. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Pearlin, L.I. and Schooler, C. 1978. The Structure of Coping. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 18:2-21.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2136319
Pelfrey, William V. Jr. 1998. “Precipitating Factors of Paradigmatic Shift in Policing: The Origin of the Community Policing Era.” Pp 79-92 in Community policing : Contemporary readings, edited by Alpert, G. P. and Piquero, A. R.. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press.
Purpura, P. P. 2001. Police and Community : Concepts and Cases. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Reid, S. 2001. Criminal Justice. Cincinnati, OH: Atomic Dog Publishing.
Reiter, M. S. 1999.” Empowerment Policing”. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 68:7-11.
Ripley, R.E. and Ripley, M.J.1992. “Empowerment, the Cornerstone of Quality: Empowering Management in Innovative Organizations in the 1990’s.” Management Decision 30(4): 20-43.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00251749210014743
Roberg, R. R., and Kuykendall, J. L. 1990. Police Organization and Management: Behavior, Theory, and Processes. Pacific Grove, Calif.: Brooks/Cole.
Roberg, R. R., Novak, K. J., and Cordner, G. W. 2009. Police and Society. New York: Oxford University Press.
Rosenbaum, D. P. 1994. The Challenge of Community Policing: Testing the Promises. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.
Schmalleger, F., and Worrall, J. L. 2010. Policing Today. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
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Spreitzer, G.M. 1995a. “Individual Empowerment in the Workplace: Dimensions, Measurement, and Validation.” Academy of Management Journal 38: 1442-1465.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/256865
Spreitzer, G.M. 1995b. “A Model of Intrapersonal Empowerment in the Workplace.” American Journal of Community Psychology 23(5): 601-629.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02506984
Spreitzer, G.M. 1996. “Social Structural Levers for Workplace Empowerment.” Academy of Management Journal 39(2): 483-504.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/256789
Spreitzer, G. H. 1997. “Toward a Common Ground in Defining Empowerment.” Research in Organizational Change and Development 10: 31-62.
Stevens, D. J. 2003. Applied Community Policing in the 21st Century. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Sun, Y. 2007. “An Investigation on Police Job Strain.” Legal System and Society 7: 687.
Thomas, K. and Velthouse, B. 1990. “Cognitive Elements of Empowerment: An ‘Interpretive’ Model of Intrinsic Task Motivation.” Academy of Management Review15: 666-681.
Trojanowicz, R. C., and Bucqueroux, B. 1990. Community Policing : A Contemporary Perspective. Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Pub. Co.
Walker, S., and Katz, C. M. 2008. The Police in America : An Introduction. Boston, Mass.: McGraw Hill.
Wall, T.D., Cordery, J.L. and Clegg, C.W. 2002. “Empowerment, Performance and Operational Uncertainty: A Theoretical Integration.” Applied Psychology: An International Review 51:146-169.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1464-0597.00083
Wang, X.H. and Wong, S.W..2012. “Police Social Service Work in China: Community Policing with Chinese Characteristics.” Asia Pacific Journal of Police and Criminal Justice 9(1): 34-54.
Winegar, S. 2003. Motivation in the Workplace: An examination of psychological empowerment of Police Officers in Oregon. Unpublished Dissertation, PSU, Portland. C. Tracy.
Wong, K. C. 2001. “Community Policing in China: Philosophy, Law and Practice.” International Journal of the Sociology and Law 29(2): 127–147.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/ijsl.2001.0146
Wong, K.C. 2002. “Policing in the People’s Republic of China: The Road to Reform in the 1990s.” The British Journal of Criminology 42 (2): 282-316.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/bjc/42.2.281
Wong, K. C. 2009. Chinese Policing : History and Reform. New York: Peter Lang.
Wuestewald, T. and Steinheider, B. 2006. “Shared Leadership: Can Empowerment Work in Police Organizations?.” The Police Chief 73: 48–55.
Xia, X. and Guo, J. 2002. Historical Development and Characteristics of Social Work in Today's China. International Social Welfare 11:254-262.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-2397.00222
Zhong, Lena. Y. 2009. “Community Policing in China: Old Wine in New Bottles.” Police Practice and Research 10 (2):157-169.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15614260802264594
Zhou, X.J. 2005. “The research on Police Job Strain and Coping.” Policing Studies 2:67–71.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/14634449810210715
Baguley, K. 1999. “Workplace Empowerment, Job Strain and Affective Organizational Commitment in Critical Care Nurses: Testing Kanter’s Structural Theory of Organizational Behavior.” Master’s Thesis, University of Western Ontario, London.
Becker, P.E. and Moen, P. 1999. “Scaling Back: Dual-earner Couples’ Work-Family Strategies.” Journal of Marriage and the Family 61: 995-1007.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/354019
Biddle, B. J. 1979. Role theory: Expectations, Identities, and Behaviors. New York: Academic Press.
Brown, J. M. and Campbell, E.A. 1990. “Sources of Occupational Stress in the Police.” Work and Stress 4: 305-318.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02678379008256993
Brown, J. M., and Kanter, R. 1982. “Empowerment: Key to effectiveness.” Hospital. Forum 25(3): 6-10.
Conger, J. and Kanungo, R. 1988. “The Empowerment Process: Integrating Theory and Practice.” Academy of Management Review 13(3): 471-482.
Cox, S. M. 1996. Police: Practices, Perspectives, Problems. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Cullen, F., Link, B., Wolfe, N., and Frank, J. 1985. “The Social Dimensions of Correctional Officer Stress.” Justice Quarterly 2: 505–532.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07418828500088711
Dai, M. Y. 2008. “Policing in the People’s Republic of China: A Review of Recent Literature.” Crime Law Social Change 50: 211–227.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10611-008-9131-7
Dempsey, J. S.1999. An Introduction to Policing. Belmont, CA: West/Wadsworth Publishing.
DiTecco, D., Cwitco, G., Arsenault. A, and Andre, M. 1992. “Operator Stress and Monitoring practices.” Applied Ergonomics 23: 29–34.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0003-6870(92)90007-I
Ford, J.K. 2002. “Organizational Change and Development: Fundamental Principles, Core Dilemmas, and Leadership Challenges in the Move toward A Community Policing Strategy.” Pp.126-149 in The Move to Community Policing: Making Change Happen. Edited by M. Morash and J. K. Ford. Sage Publications.
Fu, H. 1990. “Patrol Police: A Recent Development in the People's Republic of China.”Police Studies 13(3): 111–117.
Goldstein, H. 1990. Problem-Oriented Policing. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Goode, W.J.1960. “A Theory of Role Strain.” American Sociological Review 25:483-496.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2092933
Greene, J. R.and Klocars, C.B.1991. “What Police Do.” Pp273-284 in Thinking about Police: Contemporary Readings. Edited by C. Klockars and S. Mastrofski. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hardy, M. E., and Conway, M. E. 1988. Role theory: Perspectives for Health Professionals. Norwalk, Conn.: Appleton and Lange.
Hickman, M. and Reaves, B. 2001. Local Police Departments,1999. Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Jiang, J., Xu, Y. and Deng, Z. 2005. “The Relationship between Job Strain and Job Stress.” Chinese Mental Health Journal 3: 207.
Kanter, R. M. 1979. “Power failure in management circuits.” Pp.342-351 in Classics of Organization Theory. Edited by J. M. Shafritze, J.S. Ott, and Y.S Jang. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Kanter, R. M. 1993. Men and Women of the Corporation. New York: Basic Books.
Komarovsky, M. 1976. Dilemmas of Masculinity: A Study of College Youth. New York: Norton.
Langworthy, H. R. and Lawerence, Travis III, F. 1994. Policing in America: A Balance of Forces. New York : Macmillan.
Laschinger, H. K. 1996. “A Theoretical Approach to Studying Work Empowerment in Nursing: A Review of Studies Testing Kanter’s Theory of Structural Power in Organizations.” Nursing Administration Quarterly 20: 25-41.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006216-199602020-00006
Laschinger, H. K., Finegan, J. and Shamian, J. 2001. “The Impact of Workplace Empowerment and Organizational Trust on Staff Nurses' Work Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment.” Health Care Management Review 23: 7-23.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004010-200107000-00002
Laschinger H.K., Finegan J., Shamian J. and Wilk P. 2001. “Impact of Structural and Psychological Empowerment on Job Strain in Nursing Work Settings: Expanding Kanter’s Model.”Journal of Nursing Administration31 (5):260–272.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005110-200105000-00006
Laschinger, H. K. S. and Havens, D. S.1996. “Staff Nurse Work Empowerment and Perceived Control over Nursing Practice: Conditions for Work Effectiveness.” JONA 26(9):27-35.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005110-199609000-00007
Magenau, J. and Hunt, R. 1996. “Police Unions and the Police Role.” Human Relations 49(10):1315-1343.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/001872679604901003
Marks, S. R. 1977. “Multiple Roles and Role Strain: Some Notes on Human Energy, Time and Commitment.” American Sociological Review 42(l): 921-936.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2094577
Meese, E. 1993. “Community Policing and the Police Officer.” Perspectives on Policing15:1-11.
Oliver, W. M. 2004. Community-Oriented Policing: A Systemic Approach to Policing. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Paden, S. and Buehler, C. 1995. “Coping with the Dual-Income Lifestyle.” Journal of Marriage and Family 57(1): 101–110.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/353819
Palmiotto, M. 1999. Community Policing : A Policing Strategy for the 21st Century. Gaithersburg, Md.: Aspen.
Pareek, U. 1983. “Organizational Role Stress.” Pp.115-118 in The 1983 Annual for Facilitators, Trainers, and Consultants, edited by Goodstein, L. D. and Pfeiffer, J.W.. San Diego. University Associates.
Patton, M. Q. 1990. Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Paul, P. 2001. “Reading about ‘Community (Oriented) Policing’ and Police Models.” Policing 24(4): 470-496.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000006496
Peak, K. J., Gaines, L. K. and Glensor, R. W. 2010. Police Supervision and Management: In An Era of Community Policing. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Pearlin, L.I. and Schooler, C. 1978. The Structure of Coping. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 18:2-21.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2136319
Pelfrey, William V. Jr. 1998. “Precipitating Factors of Paradigmatic Shift in Policing: The Origin of the Community Policing Era.” Pp 79-92 in Community policing : Contemporary readings, edited by Alpert, G. P. and Piquero, A. R.. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press.
Purpura, P. P. 2001. Police and Community : Concepts and Cases. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Reid, S. 2001. Criminal Justice. Cincinnati, OH: Atomic Dog Publishing.
Reiter, M. S. 1999.” Empowerment Policing”. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 68:7-11.
Ripley, R.E. and Ripley, M.J.1992. “Empowerment, the Cornerstone of Quality: Empowering Management in Innovative Organizations in the 1990’s.” Management Decision 30(4): 20-43.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00251749210014743
Roberg, R. R., and Kuykendall, J. L. 1990. Police Organization and Management: Behavior, Theory, and Processes. Pacific Grove, Calif.: Brooks/Cole.
Roberg, R. R., Novak, K. J., and Cordner, G. W. 2009. Police and Society. New York: Oxford University Press.
Rosenbaum, D. P. 1994. The Challenge of Community Policing: Testing the Promises. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.
Schmalleger, F., and Worrall, J. L. 2010. Policing Today. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Sina News Center. (March 24, 2005). The Investigation of the Public Security Bureau Reform: Replacing the Name of the Public Security Bureau with Jingchashu. Retrieved March 23, 2010, from http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2005-03-24/15445454563s. shtml.
Spreitzer, G.M. 1995a. “Individual Empowerment in the Workplace: Dimensions, Measurement, and Validation.” Academy of Management Journal 38: 1442-1465.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/256865
Spreitzer, G.M. 1995b. “A Model of Intrapersonal Empowerment in the Workplace.” American Journal of Community Psychology 23(5): 601-629.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02506984
Spreitzer, G.M. 1996. “Social Structural Levers for Workplace Empowerment.” Academy of Management Journal 39(2): 483-504.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/256789
Spreitzer, G. H. 1997. “Toward a Common Ground in Defining Empowerment.” Research in Organizational Change and Development 10: 31-62.
Stevens, D. J. 2003. Applied Community Policing in the 21st Century. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Sun, Y. 2007. “An Investigation on Police Job Strain.” Legal System and Society 7: 687.
Thomas, K. and Velthouse, B. 1990. “Cognitive Elements of Empowerment: An ‘Interpretive’ Model of Intrinsic Task Motivation.” Academy of Management Review15: 666-681.
Trojanowicz, R. C., and Bucqueroux, B. 1990. Community Policing : A Contemporary Perspective. Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Pub. Co.
Walker, S., and Katz, C. M. 2008. The Police in America : An Introduction. Boston, Mass.: McGraw Hill.
Wall, T.D., Cordery, J.L. and Clegg, C.W. 2002. “Empowerment, Performance and Operational Uncertainty: A Theoretical Integration.” Applied Psychology: An International Review 51:146-169.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1464-0597.00083
Wang, X.H. and Wong, S.W..2012. “Police Social Service Work in China: Community Policing with Chinese Characteristics.” Asia Pacific Journal of Police and Criminal Justice 9(1): 34-54.
Winegar, S. 2003. Motivation in the Workplace: An examination of psychological empowerment of Police Officers in Oregon. Unpublished Dissertation, PSU, Portland. C. Tracy.
Wong, K. C. 2001. “Community Policing in China: Philosophy, Law and Practice.” International Journal of the Sociology and Law 29(2): 127–147.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/ijsl.2001.0146
Wong, K.C. 2002. “Policing in the People’s Republic of China: The Road to Reform in the 1990s.” The British Journal of Criminology 42 (2): 282-316.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/bjc/42.2.281
Wong, K. C. 2009. Chinese Policing : History and Reform. New York: Peter Lang.
Wuestewald, T. and Steinheider, B. 2006. “Shared Leadership: Can Empowerment Work in Police Organizations?.” The Police Chief 73: 48–55.
Xia, X. and Guo, J. 2002. Historical Development and Characteristics of Social Work in Today's China. International Social Welfare 11:254-262.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-2397.00222
Zhong, Lena. Y. 2009. “Community Policing in China: Old Wine in New Bottles.” Police Practice and Research 10 (2):157-169.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15614260802264594
Zhou, X.J. 2005. “The research on Police Job Strain and Coping.” Policing Studies 2:67–71.
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2013-01-10
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Wang, X. (2013). Empowering the Frontline Police Officers to Cope with Police Social Service Role Strain in China. International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 3, 20–45. https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2014.03.03
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