Sex Trafficking: Examining Links to Prostitution and the Routine Activity Theory
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2014.03.05Keywords:
Sex trafficking, prostitution, routine activities theory, law enforcementAbstract
Sex trafficking is often a concern in international communities. However, sex trafficking victims do not always cross international boarders; these victims can be trafficked within their own countries. The purpose of the study is to examine the perceptions of law enforcement agents experienced in investigations of prostitution and sex trafficking incidents. Qualitative data were collected by interviewing law enforcement agents along the east coast region of the United States. An analysis of the interview data uncovered a series of themes which include desire for money, drug activity, lack of awareness, and varying tolerance levels. The research results were applied to the framework of routine activity theory (Cohen &Felson, 1979). It was found that the three elements (motivated offenders, suitable targets, and absence of a capable guardian) of the theory were well applied to describe sex trafficking activity. Important future research implications as well as policy implications were discussed.
References
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Banks, Duren, and Kyckelhahn, Tracey 2011. Characteristics of suspected human trafficking incidents: 2008-2010. U.S. Department of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics, NCJ 233732:1-11. Retrieved March, 22 2012 (http://www.bjs.gov/ content/pub/ascii/cshti0810.txt).
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Estes, Richard J., and Weiner, Neil A. 2001. The commercial sexual exploitation of children in the U.S., Canada, and Mexico. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania School of Social Work, Center for the Study of Youth Policy. Retrieved June, 29 (http://www.sp2.upenn.edu/restes/CSEC_Files/Complete _CSEC_020220.pdf).
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Gul, Serdar K. 2009. “An Evaluation of the Rational Choice Theory in Criminology.” GAU Journal of Social and Applied Sciences 4(8):36-44. Retrieved July, 20 2013 (http://www.gau.edu.tr/ en/47/research).
Hodge, David R. 2008. “Sexual Trafficking in the United States: A Domestic Problem with Transnational Dimensions.” Social Work 53(2):143-152. Retrieved July, 06 2013 (http://www. naswpress.org/publications/journals/sw.html).
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Kotrla, Kimberly 2010. “Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking in the United States.” Social Work 55(2):181-187. Retrieved June, 03 2013 (http://www.naswpress.org/publications/journals/sw.html).
Laczko, Frank, and Gozdziak, Elzbieta 2005. “Data and Research on Human Trafficking: A Global Survey.” International Migration 45(1):5-342. Retrieved March, 12 2012 (http://www.iom.int/ cms/en/sites/iom/home.html).
Loftus, Britta S. 2011. “Coordinating U.S. Law on Immigration and Human Trafficking: Lifting the Lamp to Victims.” Columbia Human Rights Law Review 43(1):143-214. Retrieved March, 06 2013 (http://www3.law.columbia.edu/hrlr/).
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Rand, April 2009. “It Can't Happen in My Backyard: The Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Girls in the United States.” Child & Youth Services 31(3/4): 138-156.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0145935X.2009.524480
Reid, Joan A. 2010. “Doors Wide Shut: Barriers to the Successful Delivery of Victim Services for Domestically Trafficked Minors in a Southern U.S. Metropolitan Area.” Women & Criminal Justice 20(1/2):147-166.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08974451003641206
Samarasinghe, Vidyamali 2009. “’Two to Tango’ Probing the Demand Side of Female Sex Trafficking.” Pakistan Journal of Women's Studies 16(1/2):33-54. Retrieved July, 5 2013 (http://pakistanwomenstudies.com)
Shdaimah, Corey S., and Wiechelt, Shelly A. 2012. “Crime and Compassion: Women in Prostitution at the Intersection of Criminality and Victimization.” International Review of Victimology19(1):23-35. doi: 10.177/0269758012447217.
Sheetz, Kevin M. 2013. “Maritime Piracy in the Waters Near Somalia: Victimization Upon the International Merchant Fleet 2000-2010.” PhD dissertation, Cappella University.umi: 3555181.
Spano, Richard, Freilich, Joshua D., and Bolland, John 2008. “Gang Membership, Gun Carrying, and Employment: Applying Routine Activities Theory to Explain Violent Victimization among Inner City, Minority Youth Living in Extreme Poverty.” Justice Quarterly 25(2):381-410.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07418820802024911
Steele, Sarah L 2010. “'Combating the scourge': Constructing the Masculine 'Other' through U.S. Government Anti-trafficking Campaigns.” Journal of Hate Studies 9(1):33-64. Retrieved March, 06 2012 (http://journals.gonzaga.edu/index.php/johs).
Stotts Jr., Edward L., and Ramey, Luellen 2009. “Human Trafficking: A Call for Counselor Awareness and Action.” Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education &Developmen, 48(1):36-47. Retrieved April 25, 2013 http://www.highbeam.com/ publications/journal-of-humanistic-counseling-education-and-development-p6103
Tewksbury, Richard, Mustaine, Elizabeth, and Stengel, Kenneth M. 2008. “Examining Rates of Sexual Offenses from a Routine Activities Perspective.” Victims & Offenders 3(1):75-85.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15564880701752306
Trafficking in persons report. 2005. Trends in Organized Crime, 9(1), 55-100. Retrieved July, 6 2013 (http://www.springer.com/ social+sciences/criminology/journal/12117).
Trafficking in persons report. 2006. Trends in Organized Crime, 10(1), 5-15. Retrieved July, 6 2013 (http://www.springer.com/ social+sciences/criminology/journal/12117).
Turner, Daniel W. III 2010. “Qualitative Interview Design: A Practical Guide for Novice Investigators.” The Qualitative Report
15(3):754-760. Retrieved April, 20 2013 (http://www.nova. edu/ssss/QR/index.html).
Tyldum, Guri, and BrunovskisAnette 2005. “Describing the Unobserved: Methodological Challenges in Empirical Studies on Human Trafficking.” International Migration 43(1):17-34. Retrieved March, 12 2013 (http://www.iom.int/cms/en/sites/ iom/home.html).
Tyler, Kimberly A., and Beal, Morgan R. 2010. “The High-risk Environment of Homeless Young Adults: Consequences for Physical and Sexual Victimization.” Violence & Victims 25(1):101-115.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.25.1.101
U.S. Department of State. 2003. “Trafficking in persons report.” Retrieved April, 24 2013 (http://www.state.gov/documents/ organization/21555.pdf).
Vanwesenbeeck, Ine 2013. “Prostitution Push and Pull: Male and Female Perspectives.” Journal of Sex Research 50(1):11-16.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285
Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000, Public Law 106-386, §§1-2004, 114 Stat. 1464 2000.
Waldner, Lisa K., and Berg, Jillian 2008. “Explaining Antigay Violence Using Target Congruence: An Application of Revised Routine Activities Theory.” Violence & Victims 23(3):267-287.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.23.3.267
Williamson, Cella, and Baker, Lynda M. 2009. “Women in Street-based Prostitution: A Typology of Their Work Styles.” Qualitative Social Work 8(1):27-44.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1473325008100420
Williamson, Celia, and Prior, Michael 2009. “Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking: A Network of Underground Players in the Midwest.” Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma 2(1):46-61.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19361520802702191
Yuko, Elizabeth I. 2009. “Theories, practices and promises: Human trafficking laws and policies in destination states of the Council of Europe."" LLM Dissertation, Dublin City University, Ireland.
Zhang, Sheldon 2011. “Woman Pullers: Pimping and Sex trafficking in a Mexican Border City.” Crime, Law & Social Change 56(5):509-528.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10611-011-9333-2
Aronowitz, Alexis, Theuermann, Gerda, and Tyurykanova, Elena 2010. Analysing the business model of trafficking in human beings to better prevent the crime. Vienna, Austria: Office of the Special Representative and Co-ordinator for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings.
Banks, Duren, and Kyckelhahn, Tracey 2011. Characteristics of suspected human trafficking incidents: 2008-2010. U.S. Department of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics, NCJ 233732:1-11. Retrieved March, 22 2012 (http://www.bjs.gov/ content/pub/ascii/cshti0810.txt).
Beauregard, Eric and Leclerc, Benoit 2007. “An Application of the Rational Choice Approach to the Offending Process of Sex Offenders: A Closer Look at the Decision-making.” Sex Abuse 19:115-133. doi: 10.1007/s1119400790436.
Boetig, Brian P. 2006. “The Routine Activity Theory.” FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 75(6):12-19. Retrieved April, 20 2013 (http://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/law-enforcement-bulletin).
Broderick, Patrice M. 2005. Identifying factors in human trafficking. Boca Raton, FL: Dissertation.com. Retrieved March, 13 2012 (http://dissertation.com/book.php?book=1581122837&method=ISBN).
Cohen, Lawrence E., and Felson, Marcus 1979. “Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach.” American Sociological Review 44(August):588-608. Retrieved April, 20 2013 (http://asanet.org/journals/asr/index.cfm).
Curtis, Rick, Terry, Karen, Dank, Meredith, Dombrowski, Kirk, and Khan, Bilal 2008. The Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children in New York City, Executive Summary. New York, NY: Center for Court Innovation and John Jay College of Criminal Justice.
Estes, Richard J., and Weiner, Neil A. 2001. The commercial sexual exploitation of children in the U.S., Canada, and Mexico. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania School of Social Work, Center for the Study of Youth Policy. Retrieved June, 29 (http://www.sp2.upenn.edu/restes/CSEC_Files/Complete _CSEC_020220.pdf).
Felson, Marcus, and Clarke, Ronald V. 1998.Opportunity makes the thief. London, England: British Home Office Research Publications.
Friedman, Sara 2005. Who is There to Help Us: How the System Fails Sexually Exploited Girls in the United States. New York: ECPAT-USA, Inc. Retrieved March 20, 2013 (http://www. worldwideopen.org/en/resources/detail/738#.UoLbQSf-s-A).
Gul, Serdar K. 2009. “An Evaluation of the Rational Choice Theory in Criminology.” GAU Journal of Social and Applied Sciences 4(8):36-44. Retrieved July, 20 2013 (http://www.gau.edu.tr/ en/47/research).
Hodge, David R. 2008. “Sexual Trafficking in the United States: A Domestic Problem with Transnational Dimensions.” Social Work 53(2):143-152. Retrieved July, 06 2013 (http://www. naswpress.org/publications/journals/sw.html).
Hopper, Elizabeth K. 2004. “Underidentification of Human Trafficking Victims in the United States.” Journal of Social Work Research & Evaluation 5(2):125-136. Retrieved June 3, 2013 (http://www.springerpub.com).
Hofstede, Al 1999. The Hofstede committee report: Juvenile prostitution in Minnesota. Retrieved June 1, 2013 (http://www.heart-intl.net/HEART/080105/JuvenileProstitution Minn.pdf).
Hughes, Donna 2000. “’Welcome to the Rape Camp’: Sexual Exploitation and the Internet in Cambodia.” Journal of Sexual Aggression 6:1-23. Retrieved July, 08 2013 (http://www. tandfonline.com/TJSA).
Kotrla, Kimberly 2010. “Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking in the United States.” Social Work 55(2):181-187. Retrieved June, 03 2013 (http://www.naswpress.org/publications/journals/sw.html).
Laczko, Frank, and Gozdziak, Elzbieta 2005. “Data and Research on Human Trafficking: A Global Survey.” International Migration 45(1):5-342. Retrieved March, 12 2012 (http://www.iom.int/ cms/en/sites/iom/home.html).
Loftus, Britta S. 2011. “Coordinating U.S. Law on Immigration and Human Trafficking: Lifting the Lamp to Victims.” Columbia Human Rights Law Review 43(1):143-214. Retrieved March, 06 2013 (http://www3.law.columbia.edu/hrlr/).
Mustaine, Elizabeth, and Tewksbury, Richard 2002. “Sexual Assault of College Women: A Feminist Interpretation of a Routine Activities Analysis.” Criminal Justice Review (Georgia State University) 27(1):89-123. Retrieved April, 24 2013 (http://aysps.gsu.edu/cj/publications/criminal-justice-review).
Rand, April 2009. “It Can't Happen in My Backyard: The Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Girls in the United States.” Child & Youth Services 31(3/4): 138-156.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0145935X.2009.524480
Reid, Joan A. 2010. “Doors Wide Shut: Barriers to the Successful Delivery of Victim Services for Domestically Trafficked Minors in a Southern U.S. Metropolitan Area.” Women & Criminal Justice 20(1/2):147-166.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08974451003641206
Samarasinghe, Vidyamali 2009. “’Two to Tango’ Probing the Demand Side of Female Sex Trafficking.” Pakistan Journal of Women's Studies 16(1/2):33-54. Retrieved July, 5 2013 (http://pakistanwomenstudies.com)
Shdaimah, Corey S., and Wiechelt, Shelly A. 2012. “Crime and Compassion: Women in Prostitution at the Intersection of Criminality and Victimization.” International Review of Victimology19(1):23-35. doi: 10.177/0269758012447217.
Sheetz, Kevin M. 2013. “Maritime Piracy in the Waters Near Somalia: Victimization Upon the International Merchant Fleet 2000-2010.” PhD dissertation, Cappella University.umi: 3555181.
Spano, Richard, Freilich, Joshua D., and Bolland, John 2008. “Gang Membership, Gun Carrying, and Employment: Applying Routine Activities Theory to Explain Violent Victimization among Inner City, Minority Youth Living in Extreme Poverty.” Justice Quarterly 25(2):381-410.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07418820802024911
Steele, Sarah L 2010. “'Combating the scourge': Constructing the Masculine 'Other' through U.S. Government Anti-trafficking Campaigns.” Journal of Hate Studies 9(1):33-64. Retrieved March, 06 2012 (http://journals.gonzaga.edu/index.php/johs).
Stotts Jr., Edward L., and Ramey, Luellen 2009. “Human Trafficking: A Call for Counselor Awareness and Action.” Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education &Developmen, 48(1):36-47. Retrieved April 25, 2013 http://www.highbeam.com/ publications/journal-of-humanistic-counseling-education-and-development-p6103
Tewksbury, Richard, Mustaine, Elizabeth, and Stengel, Kenneth M. 2008. “Examining Rates of Sexual Offenses from a Routine Activities Perspective.” Victims & Offenders 3(1):75-85.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15564880701752306
Trafficking in persons report. 2005. Trends in Organized Crime, 9(1), 55-100. Retrieved July, 6 2013 (http://www.springer.com/ social+sciences/criminology/journal/12117).
Trafficking in persons report. 2006. Trends in Organized Crime, 10(1), 5-15. Retrieved July, 6 2013 (http://www.springer.com/ social+sciences/criminology/journal/12117).
Turner, Daniel W. III 2010. “Qualitative Interview Design: A Practical Guide for Novice Investigators.” The Qualitative Report
15(3):754-760. Retrieved April, 20 2013 (http://www.nova. edu/ssss/QR/index.html).
Tyldum, Guri, and BrunovskisAnette 2005. “Describing the Unobserved: Methodological Challenges in Empirical Studies on Human Trafficking.” International Migration 43(1):17-34. Retrieved March, 12 2013 (http://www.iom.int/cms/en/sites/ iom/home.html).
Tyler, Kimberly A., and Beal, Morgan R. 2010. “The High-risk Environment of Homeless Young Adults: Consequences for Physical and Sexual Victimization.” Violence & Victims 25(1):101-115.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.25.1.101
U.S. Department of State. 2003. “Trafficking in persons report.” Retrieved April, 24 2013 (http://www.state.gov/documents/ organization/21555.pdf).
Vanwesenbeeck, Ine 2013. “Prostitution Push and Pull: Male and Female Perspectives.” Journal of Sex Research 50(1):11-16.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2012.696285
Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000, Public Law 106-386, §§1-2004, 114 Stat. 1464 2000.
Waldner, Lisa K., and Berg, Jillian 2008. “Explaining Antigay Violence Using Target Congruence: An Application of Revised Routine Activities Theory.” Violence & Victims 23(3):267-287.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.23.3.267
Williamson, Cella, and Baker, Lynda M. 2009. “Women in Street-based Prostitution: A Typology of Their Work Styles.” Qualitative Social Work 8(1):27-44.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1473325008100420
Williamson, Celia, and Prior, Michael 2009. “Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking: A Network of Underground Players in the Midwest.” Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma 2(1):46-61.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19361520802702191
Yuko, Elizabeth I. 2009. “Theories, practices and promises: Human trafficking laws and policies in destination states of the Council of Europe."" LLM Dissertation, Dublin City University, Ireland.
Zhang, Sheldon 2011. “Woman Pullers: Pimping and Sex trafficking in a Mexican Border City.” Crime, Law & Social Change 56(5):509-528.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10611-011-9333-2
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Published
2014-02-20
How to Cite
Kenyon, S., & Schanz, Y. (2014). Sex Trafficking: Examining Links to Prostitution and the Routine Activity Theory. International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 3, 61–76. https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2014.03.05
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